Pragmatics in Discourse Analysis
◈ SPEECH ACTS SERVE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS
■ Declarative (also called performatives) are speech acts that “change the world” as a result of having been performed. Some good examples of such declarative speech acts are when the jury foreman announces, “We find the defendant not guilty!” and when the justice of the peace says, “I now pronounce you man and wife.”
■ Representatives are speech acts that enable the speaker to express feelings, beliefs, assertions, illustrations, and the like. An example of such a representative speech act would be a statement made by a speaker at an agricultural convention such as “Today, tomatoes can be grown in the desert.”
■ Expressives are among the most important speech acts for learners of a second or a foreign language. These speech acts express the psychological states of the speaker or the hearer. Apologizing, complaining, complimenting, and congratulating are examples of expressive.
■ Directives are speech acts that enable speakers to impose some action on the hearer. Through directives, the speaker can express what s/he wants and then expect the hearer to comply. Inherently, these are face-threatening acts toward the hearer since they usually impose on the hearer. Commands, orders, and requests are examples of directives.
■ Commissives are speech acts that enable speakers to commit themselves to future actions. Promises and refusals are commissives. By definition, these are speech acts whereby the speaker takes on or refuses some responsibility or task and are, therefore, face-threatening to the speaker, or imposing on the speaker. The use of performative verbs makes such speech acts more explicit. In the case of a promise, the choice of the verb “promise” makes the statement a stronger commitment, which is more costly to the speaker but advantageous to the hearer. In the case of refusals, on the other hand, the use of the verb “refuse” strengthens the denial of compliance and can lead to conflict or a clash between the interlocutors.
■ Although it seems that all languages share a similar inventory of speech acts, the realizations and the circumstances that are appropriate for each speech act may be quite different in different cultures, and a learner needs to acquire speech act knowledge as part of language acquisition.
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