Grammar
■ The study of grammar (or morphology and syntax) 'in formal linguistics tends to be restricted to the sentence level; moreover, many formal linguists prefer to look at grammar or syntax as an innate, autonomous, and context-free system.
■ The problem with this perspective is that there are few grammar choices made by speakers or writers that are strictly sentence-level and completely context-free. In English, for example, we propose the following list of context-free, sentence-based rules:
■ The majority of grammatical choices that a speaker/writer makes depend on certain conditions being met in terms of meaning, situational context, and/or discourse context. Such grammatical choices are not context-free. All languages have context-dependent options in grammar that enable speakers and writers to accomplish specific pragmatic and discourse-forming functions.
- use of passive versus active voice
- indirect object alternation
- pronominalization (across clauses)
- article/determiner choice
- position of adverbials (phrases, clauses) in sentences
- use of existential there versus its non-use
- tense-aspect-modality choice
- right/left dislocation of constituents
- choice of logical connector
- use versus non-use of its clefts and wh-clefts.
■ While phrase structure rules may account for all the possible grammatical forms that these structures have, pragmatic rules (rules of use) determine which form works best in which context and why.
■ Bolinger (1977) pointed out that utterances like examples (a) and (b) are fundamentally different from each other in that (a) could conceivably be used to initiate an exchange among interlocutors who were aware that a party had been scheduled, whereas (b) could only be used noninitially by one of the interlocutors and then only if there is prior discourse establishing that one or more specific individuals had come to the party.
a. Did anyone come to the party?
b. Did anyone else come to the party?
Words such as "else, " which typically require prior discourse for their interpretation, are generally ignored in sentence-level grammars, which treat the structure of sentences like example (a) but ignore those like example (b).
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