Writing
▣ WRITING AS PROCESS
▶ CREATING COHERENCE IN A TEXT
■ A writer who undertakes the task of creating a written text for communication purposes is faced with the need to organize their thoughts into a sequence that makes sense. Some people may start writing by scribbling down ideas at random, and while doing that, the organizational features of the text emerge. Others first plan the overall outline in varying degrees of detail and only then start writing, and yet others will write an introduction that serves as an abstract, a basis for the whole text. These are just some of the different ways individual writers approach writing since the writing process is a personally adapted creative process that varies from person to person.
■ Whatever the initial steps of writing are for the individual writer, they eventually lead to the process of organizing thoughts. Such planning can never take place in its entirety before the actual text is written since, often, the organization of a text crystallizes only during the writing process. Therefore, an experienced writer goes through many revisions of the text.
▶ CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC
■ In teaching ESL/EFL, we often encounter the difficulty students face when reading or writing expository texts if they come from a cultural background where coherence conventions are different from Western rhetorical tradition. Problems of this sort are dealt with systematically in the subfield of written discourse called contrastive rhetoric.
■ Today researchers in contrastive rhetoric generally agree on a weak version of Whorf's hypothesis, i.e., that users of each language with a literate tradition may develop and codify over time culturally based and linguistically specific rhetorical patterns as follows.
■ Hartmann (1980) and others have emphasized the need for researchers in contrastive rhetoric to use parallel texts when carrying out any comparative analysis so that the readers' genre, topic, and register are controlled. For example, one can compare levels - personal essays on the same subject or news articles on the same topic in two or more languages.
▶ STRATEGIES AND STEPS IN CREATING COHERENCE
■ We know from our discussion of reading in Chapter 7 how important coherence is for the proper interpretation of a text. Although the reader, while interpreting the text, creates a coherent version of the text, this happens most efficiently if the writer has carefully planned the text. It is the writer's responsibility to produce a text that will be coherent to the potential reader, and it is the responsibility of the writing teacher to help writers develop strategies to do so. These strategies involve considerations of extratextual features that relate to the background knowledge the reader is likely to bring to the reading of the text and intratextual features that the writer must build into the text to ensure coherence.
■ A vital consideration in creating coherence in a text is the choice of genre and rhetorical format, which is closely related to the purpose of writing. We distinguish between the narrative genre and factual or expository essays at the most general level. McCarthy and Carter (1994) refer to these as the two prototype genres. The narrative is around a chronological development of events centered around a person or hero. Consequently, a description is usually personalized or individualized and tells about the events related to the person or persons involved. On the other hand, an expository text has no chronological organization but rather a logical one and is usually objective and factual in nature.
■ In writing a narrative, one may want to tell a story, teach a lesson through analogy, render a complex, emotionally loaded message in an accommodating form, or provide the reader with a sophisticated literary experience. Although the rhetorical format would be the narrative in all of these cases, different subgenres of narratives would present other conventions and constraints for fables, folktales, novels, personal biographies, etc. Furthermore, the expected readers for each of these written subgenres would be different, and so would be the place where the written text might appear. These are relevant facts to consider when a text is being written, and coherence is being created. The writing classroom must provide learners with experience writing various text types according to learners' interests and needs.
■ In writing an expository text, the purpose and the intended audience become crucial. A text that focuses on the latest developments in biology, for instance, might take a different form depending on whether it is intended for inclusion in a popular magazine, a biology textbook, or a scientific journal. Each of these text types adheres to certain writing conventions. In the first instance, the purpose is to impart information to the public at large; in the second case, the text is intended for students who are just being introduced to the subject area, whereas the third audience consists of scientists who know the field exceptionally well. Coherence needs to be created somewhat differently for each of these audiences relating to the different background knowledge that each brings to the reading of the text.
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